HERODIUM Final Reports of the 1972–2010 Excavations Directed by Ehud Netzer Volume I Herod’s Tomb Precinct Roi Porat, Rachel Chachy, and Yakov Kalman with contributions by: N. Ahipaz, S. Amorai-Stark, B. Arensburg, A. Barash, A. Belfer-Cohen, R. Bouchnick, A. Ecker, E. Eshel, G. Foerster, J. Gärtner, M. Hershkovitz, S. Ilani, R.E. Jackson-Tal, I. Ktalav, T. Minster, R. Nenner-Soriano, O. Peleg-Barkat, R. Sarig, D.R. Schwartz, G.D. Stiebel, D. Wachs, and B. Zissu Israel Exploration Society Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem 2015 THIS VOLUME WAS MADE POSSIBLE BY THE SAMIS FOUNDATION ISBN 978-965-221-099-9 ©2015 Israel Exploration Society All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form (except for brief excerpts of reviewers), without permission from the publisher. Editing by Robert Amoils Layout by Avraham Pladot Typesetting by Marzel A.S. — Jerusalem Printed by Old City Press Ltd., Jerusalem Contents Samuel Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix–x Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi–xxi List of Loci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii–xxviii List of Illustrations, Plans, Tables, and Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix–xliv PART I: Introduction Chapter 1: Herodium in History (Daniel R. Schwartz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–14 Chapter 2: History of Research (Rachel Chachy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–19 PART II: Stratigraphy and Architecture Chapter 3: The Stratigraphy in the Area of Herod’s Tomb Precinct (Roi Porat, Yakov Kalman, and Rachel Chachy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21–200 PART III: The Mausoleum Chapter 4: The Reconstruction of the Mausoleum (Rachel Chachy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201–313 Chapter 5: The Architectural Decoration of the Mausoleum (Orit Peleg-Barkat and Rachel Chachy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314–348 Chapter 6: The Sarcophagi from the Mausoleum Unearthed at Herodium (Gideon Foerster) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349–361 Chapter 7: Human Bones from the Area of the Mausoleum (Anna Belfer-Cohen, Baruch Arensburg, Alon Barash, and Raheli Sarig) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362–364 PART IV: The Finds Chapter 8: The Pottery from the Area of the Mausoleum (Judit Gärtner) . . . . . . . . . . 365–395 Chapter 9: The Glass Finds from the Area of Herod’s Tomb (Ruth E. Jackson-Tal) . . . . 396–408 Chapter 10: The Coins from Herodium — the Tomb Area (Nili Ahipaz) . . . . . . . . . . . 409–425 Chapter 11: The Metal Artifacts from the Area of the Mausoleum (Ravit Nenner-Soriano). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426–431 Chapter 12: Military Equipment from the Area of the Mausoleum and the Theater at Herodium (Guy D. Stiebel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432–453 Chapter 13: The Latin and Greek Inscribed Pottery from the Area of the Tomb at Herodium (Avner Ecker) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454–459 Chapter 14: The Hebrew and Aramaic Inscriptions from the Area of the Tomb at Herodium (Esther Eshel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460–473 Chapter 15: Gem and Ring from Herodium (Malka Hershkovitz and Shua Amorai-Stark) . 474–475 Chapter 16: Finds of Animal Remains from the Excavations on the Northern Slope of Herodium (Area A), 2006–2010 (Ram Bouchnick). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476–503 Chapter 17: The Molluscs (Inbar Ktalav) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504–510 Chapter 18: Graffito of a Ship and a Boat (Boaz Zissu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511–514 Conclusions Synthesis and Archaeological-Historical Discussion (Roi Porat, Yakov Kalman, and Rachel Chachy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515–534 Appendix I The Geological and Morphological Structure of Herodium and the Quarries for Building Stones and Fill Materials (Shimon Ilani, Tsevi Minster, and Daniel Wachs) . . 535–546 Color Plates CHAPTER 12 MILITARY EQUIPMENT FROM THE AREA OF THE MAUSOLEUM AND THE THEATER AT HERODIUM Guy D. Stiebel The excavations of the area of the mausoleum and theater at Herodium revealed a significant number of iron artefacts, most notably representing a martial material culture. This group of ferrous items comprises iron hobnails and arrowheads. In addition, a large number of slingshots was uncovered alongside a group of rolling stones. Of great interest are a rare bone ear-lath of a composite bow and a copper alloy brooch; both provide important insights into issues of production and identity. This collection of artefacts should be added to the previously published large assemblage of military equipment from both Corbo’s and Netzer’s excavations at Herodium (Stiebel 2003). CATALOGUE MILITARY DRESS AND FITTINGS 7. Hobnail L.A2788–6230/1 Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Iron Hobnails Typical dome-head hobnails of Roman caligae were uncovered in the excavations. Such items are commonly reported in the contexts of the First Jewish Revolt and the Bar-Kokhba Revolt (for a detailed discussion and parallels, see Stiebel 2009: 327–328). Although the typically encountered, sporadic examples of individual hobnails are seemingly the result of material fatigue and attrition, numerous hobnails were lost due to the rocky terrain of Judea (Stiebel 2007: 254–255). Nonetheless, the group of six hobnails that were found together suggests that they came from a single sole. Much corroded large dome-head iron hobnail with a broken shank. The hobnail was discovered among the debris of the mausoleum, in front of the cistern to the north. Dimensions: D. of head: 18–19 mm; total H.: 18 mm+; H. of head: 10 mm. 8. Hobnail L.A2844–6383 (Pl. 12.I: 7) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Hobnail with a dome head. The head is broken. Dimensions: D. of head: 13 mm; total H.: 16 mm; H. of head: 6 mm. 1–6. Group of six hobnails 9. Hobnail L.A2758–6119/1 (Pl. 12.I: 8) Phase 4b (period between the two revolts) L.A2582–5132 (Pl. 12.I: 1–6) Phase 4b (period between the two revolts) Six dome-head iron hobnails, probably from the sole of one caliga. All shanks are bent at a right angle. Dimensions: D. of heads: 10–12 mm. Corroded hobnail with a broken shank. Dimensions: D. of head: 13 mm; total H.: 12 mm; H. of head: 5 mm. [ 432 ] CHAPTER 12: MILITARY EQUIPMENT Pl. 12.I. Hobnails from the mausoleum excavations at Herodium. Large hobnail, with a dome head and a shank bent at a right angle. Dimensions: D. of head: 14 mm; total H.: 18 mm; H. of head: 6 mm. 10. Hobnail L.A2758–6119/2 (Pl. 12.I: 9) Phase 4b (period between the two revolts) Corroded hobnail with a straight broken shank. Dimensions: D. of head: 11 mm; total H.: 15 mm; H. of head: 7 mm. 11. Hobnail L.A2596–5210 (Pl. 12.I: 10) Stages 3 to 4 (from the creation of the artificial mount up to the period between the two revolts) 12. Hobnail L.A2902–6531 Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Caliga hobnail. Dimensions: D. of head: 16 mm; total H.: 16 mm; H. of head: 8 mm. [ 433 ] HERODIUM I: HEROD’S TOMB PRECINCT 13. Hobnail L.A2655–5426/2 Phase 4b (period between the two revolts) Caliga hobnail with a dome head and a shank bent at a right angle. Dimensions: D. of head: 11–12 mm; total H.: 15 mm; H. of head: 4 mm; Th. of shank: 5 mm. 14. Hobnail L.A2583–5143 Phase 4b (period between the two revolts) Caliga hobnail with a dome head and a slightly bent shank. Dimensions: D. of head: 12 mm; total H.: 21 mm; H. of head: 8 mm; Th. of shank: 4–5 mm. 15. Hobnail L.A2870–12584 (Pl. 12.I: 11) Postdating Stage 3 (area of the theater) Large iron dome-head hobnail with a broken shank. Dimensions: D. of head: 12–15 mm; total H.: 20 mm+; H. of head: 8 mm. 16. Hobnail L.A2983–10066 (Pl. 12.I: 12) Stages 2–3 (area of the theater) Much damaged dome-head iron hobnail with a broken shank. Dimensions: D. of head: 15 mm; total H.: 20 mm+; H. of head: 8 mm. 17. Brooch L.A2582–5126 (Ill. 12.1, Color Plate 14: 3) Phase 4b (period between the two revolts) A wheel brooch (fibula). The cast copper-alloy brooch features the typical outlines of a wheel brooch. The circular wheel-like front has six central spokes corresponding to the six very small projecting lobed knobs located around its perimeter. The triangular concave spokes connect the outer edge with the round center to which a highly corroded roundheaded iron pin is attached. The elongated fastening pin is preserved on its back. The brooch was found in a refuse dump revealed to the west of the mausoleum ruins and clearly belonged to the Roman occupying force at the end of the First Jewish Revolt (71 CE). A Ill. 12.1. Roman wheel brooch revealed in the refuse dump to the west of the mausoleum ruins. very similar, yet unpublished, specimen was revealed in Yigael Yadin’s excavations at Masada and belongs to the same chronological stage. Wheel brooches are documented as early as the first century CE and the latest examples are attested in third-century CE contexts. The main distribution centers of wheel brooches were in Gaul and the Rhineland, most notably in northern and eastern Gaul (Green 1982: 168). It must be stressed that the Gallic origin of the brooch does not appear to testify to the origin of the soldiers but rather to their fashion taste. Gallic dress items were very popular among Roman soldiers, the most prominent example being the AVCISSA brooch. Another indication of this “Gallic trend” is the woollen tabby with checks uncovered at Masada, which clearly originated from the northwestern provinces (Sheffer and GrangerTaylor 1994: 197–198, Fig. 84, Cl. Pl. VIb). This kilted sagus no doubt belonged to a member of the Roman garrison that was stationed at Masada. The fact that Roman soldiers constituted an important economic factor and were significant consumers of a wide spectrum of goods is well documented (Le Bohec 1994: 207–220, esp. 218–219), and dress [ 434 ] CHAPTER 12: MILITARY EQUIPMENT items and fittings were evidently acquired by the soldiers via two parallel channels: privately but also in an institutionalized manner (cf. P. Ryl. II, 189; BGU 1564 = SP 395).1 Dimensions: D. of head: 38 mm (with knobs). Archery Tackle The assemblage from the mausoleum and theater areas comprises a rare component — a composite bow and a handful of trilobate iron arrowheads. 18. Ear-lath of a composite bow L.A12477–11224 (Ill. 12.2, Color Plate 14:4) Stage 3 (the creation of the artificial mount, area of the theater) exhibits scoring marks on the front part, while saw marks are discernible on its flat inner side. James (2004: 199) suggested that the rough nature of the lath’s inner side was intended to provide a surface conducive for the application of glue that held it to the wooden core of the bow. Three bone ear-laths were uncovered at Masada, all dated to the First Jewish Revolt (Stiebel and Magness 2007: 26, Pl. 27: 1–3). A bone grip from a Bar-Kokhba Revolt context was further identified in the Wadi Murabbaªât Caves (de Vaux 1961: Pl. XII: 2, Fig. 12: 10; for its identification, see Stiebel 2009: 313, Fig. 2), while another pair of ear-laths was found at the Byzantine site of Nessana (Colt 1962: 52, Pl. XXI: 27). Eastern examples from the Late Roman period are attested in Dura-Europos (James 2004: 191, nos. 648–651) and Belmesa (Coulston 1985: 233, nos. 26–27, Figs. 15–18). A DNA analysis of one of the ear-laths from Masada indicated local production, as it was found to have been manufactured from an ibex’s bone (Stiebel 2007, Appendix 1.1). Since the ibex was endemic only to Palestine, Jordan, and southern Syria, regions that were frequented by both the Roman and rebel archers, the lath cannot be attributed with certainty to either side. Dimensions: L.: 73 mm; W.: 9 mm; W. of nock: 3 mm. TRILOBATE IRON ARROWHEADS Ill. 12.2. Bone ear-lath uncovered west of the theater in a Herodian dump. A single bone ear-lath was uncovered west of the theater in a Herodian dump, the formation of which was attributed to the activity of the workers who constructed the artificial mount. It formed part of a composite reflex bow (Coulston 1985: 224–234; James 2004: 191–192). The lath was found almost intact, apart from its most dorsal part that is missing. It has a deep semicircular nock. The slightly curved body All the arrowheads belong to the most common type: the trilobate iron arrowhead (for an introductory discussion, see Stiebel 2009: 313–315). They should be added to the already published 137 trilobate iron arrowheads (Stiebel 2003: 216–217, 227–236). As in the latter assemblage, the most common trilobate iron arrowhead is of Type C (Stiebel 2003: 217; idem 2009: 314). 19. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2628–5313/1 (Pl. 12.II: 1) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) 1. For the production and ownership of Roman military equipment, see Bishop and Coulston 2006: 233–240; 262–267; Stiebel 2007: 242–264. [ 435 ] HERODIUM I: HEROD’S TOMB PRECINCT Pl. 12.II. Arrowheads from the mausoleum excavations at Herodium. [ 436 ] CHAPTER 12: MILITARY EQUIPMENT Very well-preserved head, with slightly bent tang due to impact. The tang still features the corroded remains of the wooden foreshaft. It belongs to Type C (Stiebel 2003: 216–217, 227–236). Dimensions: Overall L.: 48 mm; L. of tang: 24 mm; W. of head: 10–12 mm. 20. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2628–5313/2 (Pl. 12.II: 2) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Similar to cat. no. 19. It has a slightly bent tang due to impact. One wing is partly damaged. The head belongs to Type C. Dimensions: Overall L.: 48 mm; L. of tang: 20 mm; W. of head: 10–11 mm. 25. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2844–6382 (Pl. 12.II: 7) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Damaged head. One wing and most of the tang are missing. It appears to belong to Type C. Dimensions: Overall L.: 39 mm+; L. of head: 35 mm. 26. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2810–6296 (Pl. 12.II: 8) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Very damaged head; most of its distal part is missing. Dimensions: Overall L.: 27 mm+; L. of head: 19 mm+. 27. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2718–6005/1 (Pl. 12.II: 9) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) 21. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2852–6403 (Pl. 12.II: 3) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Much corroded head. One wing is missing and another is damaged. The tang is bent and broken due to impact. The head belongs to Type A. Dimensions: Overall L.: 48 mm+; L. of tang: 11 mm+; L. of head: 37 mm. 22. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2759–6118 (Pl. 12.II: 4) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Damaged head with two chipped wings. The tang is bent due to impact. It seems to belong to Type A. Dimensions: Overall L.: 35 mm; L. of head: 24 mm. 28. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2780–6212 (Pl. 12.II: 10) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Corroded head. Its tang is broken. The head appears to belong to Type E. Very damaged head. Broken tang and most of the wings is missing. Dimensions: Overall L.: 37 mm+; L. of head: 31 mm; W.: 12–13 mm. 29. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2788–6230/2 (Pl. 12.II: 11) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Dimensions: Overall L.: 29 mm+. 23. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2759–6235/1 (Pl. 12.II: 5) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Bent wings and broken tang due to impact. The head belongs to Type B. Small and badly damaged head. Dimensions: Overall L.: 25 mm+. Dimensions: Overall L.: 31 mm+; L. of head: 25 mm; W.: 11–12 mm. 24. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2759–6235/2 (Pl. 12.II: 6) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) 30. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2757–6229/1 (Pl. 12.II: 12) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Damaged head with one damaged wing. It seems to belong to Type C. Bent wings and broken tang due to impact. The head belongs to Type C. Dimensions: Overall L.: 29 mm+; L. of head: 24 mm; W.: 11 mm. Dimensions: Overall L.: 39 mm+; L. of head: 30 mm; W.: 13–14 mm. [ 437 ] HERODIUM I: HEROD’S TOMB PRECINCT Very small and robust head that belongs to Type C. Its tip is missing. 31. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2757–6229/2 (Pl. 12.II: 13) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) Bent wings and broken tang due to impact. The two wings are damaged. The head belongs to Type C. Dimensions: Overall L.: 34 mm+; L. of tang: 26 mm; W.: 11 mm. 32. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2691–5562 (Pl. 12.II: 14) Phase 4a (First Jewish Revolt) 37. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2827–6344 (Pl. 12.II: 19) Stages 2 to 3 (erection of the theater up to the creation of the artificial mount; area of the theater) Small and robust head that belongs to Type C. Both its tip and tang are missing due to impact. Only one wing survived, and tang is bent and broken due to impact. The head belongs to Type C. Dimensions: Overall L.: 31 mm+; L. of head: 20 mm+; W.: 12 mm. Dimensions: Overall L.: 31 mm+; L. of head: 29 mm; L. of tang: 4 mm+; W.: 11 mm. 38. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A12264–10745 (Pl. 12.II: 20) Stages 2 to 3 (erection of the theater up to the creation of the artificial mount; area of the theater) Dimensions: Overall L.: 27 mm+; L. of head: 25 mm; W.: 11–13 mm. 33. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2651–5380 (Pl. 12.II: 15) Phase 4b (period between the two revolts) Tang is missing. The head belongs to Type D. The tang is slightly bent due to impact. Two wing tips are also bent. The head belongs to Type C. Dimensions: Overall L.: 52 mm; L. of tang: 25 mm; W. of head 11 mm. 34. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2828–6361 (Pl. 12.II: 16) Phase 4b (period between the two revolts) Dimensions: Overall L.: 28 mm+; L. of head: 28 mm; W.: 11–12 mm. 39. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A12616–12530 (Pl. 12.II: 21) Stages 2 to 3 (erection of the theater up to the creation of the artificial mount; area of the theater) Strongly barbed wings. The tang is bent due to impact. The head belongs to Type D. Partly damaged head. The tang is broken, seemingly due to impact. The head belongs to Type B. Dimensions: Overall L.: 40 mm+; L. of head: 28 mm; L. of tang: 15 mm; W.: 12–14 mm. Dimensions: Overall L.: 47 mm+; L. of head: 39 mm; W.: 14–15 mm. STONE PROJECTILES 35. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A2762–6151 (Pl. 12.II: 17) Phase 4b (period between the two revolts) Slingshots and ballista balls Small damaged head. One wing is damaged and most of the tang is missing. It appears to belong to Type E. Dimensions: Overall L.: 32 mm+; L. of head: 25 mm; W.: 8 mm. 36. Trilobate iron arrowhead L.A12174–10583 (Pl. 12.II: 18) Stages 2 to 3 (erection of the theater up to the creation of the artificial mount; area of the theater) The excavations of the top soil and the uppermost layers that covered the mausoleum area (Stages 4–5) yielded nearly 350(!) stone projectiles, most notably slingshots (see Plan 12.1, Table 12.1, and Ills. 12.3–5). Ten ballista balls were found among the mausoleum’s ruins, in a context dating to the First Jewish Revolt, whereas all the others came from a Bar-Kokhba context: A cluster of ballista balls was uncovered directly above and next to the built remains in the area of the foray openings of the tunnels that were revealed to the southeast of the [ 438 ] Pl. 12.III. Stone projectiles from the mausoleum excavations at Herodium. Ill. 12.4. Perforated slingshot revealed during the excavations in the area around the mausoleum. Ill. 12.3. Compiled assemblage of slingshots found among the mausoleum’s ruins. HERODIUM I: HEROD’S TOMB PRECINCT Ill. 12.5. Compiled group of slingshots and ballista balls found among the mausoleum’s ruins. mausoleum’s podium; some of them in a direct relationship to the activities that took place inside the tunnels. The major group of ballista balls was revealed to the west of the tomb precinct, at the top of a layer including stone steps originating from the late stairway, which had been pushed down the stairway during the Bar-Kokhba Revolt (Stage 5). Such clusters, the result of incoming Roman fire, are attested at Masada and at Gamala (Stiebel 2005: 100, 103–104; 2007: Figs. 26, 28, 30–31). This find indicates the presence of auxiliary slingers, in all likelihood of Syrian origin, in the Roman force that attacked Herodium (cf. BJ 3.211; Stiebel 2007: 213–214). Rolling stones Rolling stones were used at Herodium as early as the time of Herod the Great, and predominantly during the two revolts (Stiebel 2003: 219–221, 239–240). One such stone was revealed on the hill’s eastern slope, below the artificial mount’s fill (Ill. 12.6). Twenty rolling stones were found heaped together just to the west of the late (monumental) stairway (W1706; Ill. 12.7). They were uncovered in a triangular pocket created by W1706 and the curvilinear bedrock scarp (rc.1778). Although it is difficult to ascertain this, it does seem that they were Ill. 12.6. Rolling stone revealed on the hill’s eastern slope, below the artificial mount’s fill. intentionally heaped here rather than incidentally having ended up here after being rolled down from the mountaintop. Such a concentration might have been intended to block a possible Roman assault via the stairway. A previous study pointed out two possible Roman assault axes from the southeast and the [ 440 ] Plan 12.1. Plan of the tomb precinct showing the locations where slingshots were revealed. [ 441 ] Ill. 12.7. Group of rolling stones as found in situ in the triangular pocket created by the late stairway and the curvilinear bedrock scarp (rc.1778). [ 442 ] CHAPTER 12: MILITARY EQUIPMENT northwest (Stiebel 2003: Fig. 6), as indicated by the concentrations of rolling stones that were documented at the very foot of the Mountain Palace-Fortress. The higher location of the concentration under discussion and the position of the stones heaped on the slope seem to suggest that they were indeed piled there by the rebels and were never put to use, as the Romans did not ascend via the stairway. The fact that the opening of the foray tunnel near the mausoleum was targeted by numerous slingshots and arrowheads seems to support this interpretation. DISCUSSION An overall review of the military equipment that was uncovered in this area is in good accord with the data that has been documented to date from Herodium. A most important contribution of this assemblage derives from the sealed Herodian contexts in which military equipment has been discovered. Together with the assemblages from Jericho and Cypros (Stiebel 2013), it provides a unique and most important insight into the equipment of Herod’s army. The bone ear-lath typical of composite bows, which had an eastern origin, is the earliest example of this type of bow in Roman Palestine. This should not come as a surprise in view of Herod’s recruitment of Babylonian mounted archers (AJ 17.24 ff.; Shatzman 1991: 174–180; Stiebel 2007: 216–217). When one turns to the period of the First Jewish Revolt against Rome, the dominance of light projectiles in the archaeological record seems to provide the best reflection of the fighting strategy of the attacking Romans. It seems that the steep terrain compelled the Roman forces to employ a combination of face-to-face combat and supporting fire. The latter was provided by the use of slings and light torsion artillery, such as ballistae. As noted above, we have suggested that the course of the Roman attack may be identified by an analysis of the spatial distribution of the rolling stones (Stiebel 2003: 220–221). Two such concentrations were identified southeast and northwest of the Mountain Palace-Fortress, to which one can add the stones that were heaped near the stairway. For the assaulting Romans the mausoleum’s area presented two major strategic targets — the late stairway and more crucially the foray openings of tunnels. The spatial distribution of the stone projectiles radiating from the opening of the tunnel close to the ruins of the mausoleum represents suppressing Roman fire — seemingly shot from the nearby hill to the east of this area. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bishop M.C. and Coulston J.C.N. 2006. Roman Military Equipment. From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, Oxford. Bohec Le Y. 1994. The Imperial Roman Army, London. Coulston J.C. 1985. “Roman Archery Equipment,” in M.C. Bishop (ed.), The Production and Distribution of Roman Military Equipment, Proceedings of Roman Military Equipment Research Seminar, British Archaeological Reports, International Series 275, Oxford, pp. 220–366. Green M. 1982. “The Roman Wheel-Brooch from Lakenheath (Suffolk) and a Note on the Typology of Wheel-Brooches,” Studia Celtica 30: 168–175. Manning W.H. 1985. Catalogue of the Romano-British Iron Tools, Fittings and Weapons in the British Museum, London. Shatzman I. 1991. The Armies of the Hasmonaeans and Herod, Tübingen. Sheffer A. and Granger-Taylor H. 1994. “Textiles from Masada: A Preliminary Selection,” Masada IV, The Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963–1965 Final Reports, Jerusalem, pp. 149–225. Stiebel G.D. 2003. “The Militaria from Herodium,” in G.C. Bottini, L. Di Segni, and L.D. Chrupcala (eds.), One Land — Many Cultures, Archaeological Studies In Honour of Stanislao Loffreda O.F.M., Collectio Maior 41, Jerusalem, pp. 215–243. Idem 2005. “‘Dust to Dust, Ashes to Ashes’ — Military Equipment from Destruction Layers in Palestine,” Archäologie der Schlachtfelder — Militaria aus Zerstörungshorizonten, Tagungsakten der 14. ROMEC Konferenz Wien 2003, Carnuntum Jahrbuch, pp. 99–108. Idem 2006. “Roman Military Artefacts,” in Y. Tepper and L. Di Segni, A Christian Prayer Hall of the Third [ 443 ] HERODIUM I: HEROD’S TOMB PRECINCT Century CE at Kefar ªOthnay (Legio), Excavations at the Megiddo Prison 2005, Jerusalem, pp. 29–31. Idem 2009. “Military Equipment from the Bar Kokhba Period from the Refuge Caves,” in H. Eshel and R. Porat, Refuge Caves of the Bar Kokhba Revolt — Second Volume, Jerusalem, pp. 309–338. (in Hebrew) Idem 2013. “Military Equipment from Jericho and Cypros,” in R. Bar-Nathan and J. Gärtner (eds.), Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Jericho, Volume V, Final Reports of the 1973–1987 Excavations, The Finds from Jericho and Cypros, Jerusalem, pp. 290–298. Vaux de R. 1961. “Archéologie,” in P. Benoit, J.T. Milik, and R. de Vaux, Les Grottes de Murabbaªât, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert II, Oxford, pp. 3–63. Table 12.1. Stone projectiles from the excavations of the mausoleum area (Stages 4–5). Locus Index Preserved part Weight (gram) Min. thickness (mm) Max. thickness (mm) A2522 12 Complete 305 62 67 A2559 22 Complete 245 48 68 A2577 23 Complete 240 60 69 A2577 137 Complete 815 89 100 A2577 138 Complete 430 72 74 A2577 139 Complete 385 66 77 A2577 140 Complete 410 62 78 A2577 141 Complete 390 69 72 A2577 142 Complete 635 73 85 A2577 143 Complete 455 67 80 A2577 144 Complete 430 60 72 A2577 145 Complete 380 67 72 A2577 146 Complete 255 53 64 A2577 148 Complete 390 54 70 A2577 149 Complete 495 61 76 A2577 150 Complete 175 50 63 A2577 151 Complete 495 67 72 A2577 152 Complete 280 54 66 A2577 153 75% 325 [60] 80 A2577 154 Complete 320 64 95 A2577 155 75% 255 [51] 72 A2577 156 75% 195 56 61 A2577 157 Complete 170 56 58 A2577 158 Complete 310 53 71 A2577 159 25% 115 [34] 62 A2577 160 50% 105 47 60 A2577 161 50% 145 [42] 66 A2577 162 33% 125 [42] 69 [ 444 ] CHAPTER 12: MILITARY EQUIPMENT Locus Index Preserved part Weight (gram) Min. thickness (mm) Max. thickness (mm) A2577 315 Complete 450 62 75 A2577 316 Complete 430 68 69 A2577 317 Complete 465 60 78 A2577 318 Complete 190 52 58 A2577 319 Complete 325 60 64 A2577 320 Complete 535 68 70 A2577 321 Complete 655 73 83 A2577 322 Complete 330 64 65 A2577 323 Complete 310 56 66 A2577 324 Complete 280 66 68 A2577 325 Complete 525 72 73 A2577 326 Complete 465 64 68 A2577 327 Complete 245 55 62 A2577 328 Complete 355 58 66 A2577 329 Complete 405 57 70 A2577 330 50% 185 [40] 70 A2577 331 50% 205 [41] 72 A2577 332 66% 545 [66] 81 A2577 333 33% 360 [52] 73 A2577 334 33% 225 [45] 75 A2577 335 15% 205 [44] 80 A2577 336 50% 115 [36] 60 A2577 337 50% 170 [32] 69 A2577 338 25% 125 [40] 66 A2577 339 15% 45 [29] [65] A2577 340 15% 45 [53] [60] A2577 341 12% 40 [38] [58] A2578 40 33% 255 [43] 79 A2579 28 Complete 330 69 72 A2581 39 33% 185 [39] [68] A2586 69 33% 185 [38] [81] A2586 81 75% 290 [50] 70 A2586 82 33% 150 [32] [66] A2588 53 50% 185 40 72 A2588 55 75% 210 [50] 66 A2588 307 Complete 245 59 67 A2597 50 Complete 305 59 69 [ 445 ] HERODIUM I: HEROD’S TOMB PRECINCT Locus Index Preserved part Weight (gram) Min. thickness (mm) Max. thickness (mm) A2599 304 50% 170 [35] 76 A2601 308 50% 255 [42] 78 A2601 309 Complete 260 63 69 A2605 305 Complete 360 57 72 A2605 306 33% 145 [39] 74 A2606 163 Complete 225 53 65 A2607 311 Complete 1135 84 98 A2609 16 33% 110 [30] [64] A2609 17 Complete 230 50 64 A2609 24 33% 140 [41] 68 A2609 67 33% 200 60 61 A2609 68 Complete 110 [41] [63] A2609 70 33% 615 [63] [145] A2609 147 Complete 565 64 84 A2609 164 Complete 520 67 78 A2611 18 33% 130 [32] 64 A2611 20 Complete 210 57 63 A2611 25 Complete 390 60 72 A2611 38 50% 100 [32] 62 A2613 245 Complete 225 55 59 A2616 37 Complete 340 [58] 74 A2616 42 50% 180 [36] 73 A2616 49 Complete 375 56 73 A2620 21 Complete 245 52 66 A2620 30 75% 350 80 81 A2620 32 33% 125 [30] 64 A2623 289 Complete 380 68 70 A2623 290 Complete 425 64 73 A2623 291 Complete 345 67 73 A2623 292 Complete 460 73 75 A2624 244 Complete 460 64 73 A2629 296 Complete 410 64 75 A2629 297 Complete 0.03 19 41 A2631 11 33% 215 [55] [75] A2631 15 33% 155 [42] [75] A2633 14 Complete 375 65 76 A2633 26 50% 275 [43] 75 [ 446 ] CHAPTER 12: MILITARY EQUIPMENT Locus Index Preserved part Weight (gram) Min. thickness (mm) Max. thickness (mm) A2634 298 50% 185 [37] 75 A2634 299 Complete 330 [46] 82 A2635 287 50% 170 [37] 63 A2640 219 Complete 500 58 75 A2640 220 50% 370 [49] 76 A2640 221 75% 360 [56] 75 A2640 222 15% 750 [52] 145 A2640 223 Complete 275 58 68 A2640 224 15% 90 [44] [53] A2641 300 Complete 455 61 71 A2641 301 50% 270 [39] 77 A2641 302 15% 85 [35] 65 A2641 303 33% 115 [33] [50] A2643 167 Complete 325 61 68 A2643 168 33% 95 [32] 60 A2643 169 Complete 275 52 65 A2643 230 Complete 300 58 65 A2643 231 Complete 500 60 73 A2643 232 Complete 280 56 65 A2643 233 Complete 415 60 72 A2643 234 Complete 210 54 59 A2643 235 Complete 315 59 67 A2645 225 75% 605 77 [77] A2645 226 50% 310 [55] 73 A2645 227 Complete 705 72 86 A2645 228 Complete 220 51 66 A2645 229 75% 185 [46] 62 A2648 293 Complete 360 63 70 A2648 294 Complete 395 65 73 A2648 295 50% 200 [43] 70 A2671 236 Complete 310 62 68 A2671 237 Complete 485 66 75 A2671 238 75% 160 [33] 56 A2671 239 Complete 280 48 67 A2672 10 50% 185 47 [70] A2674 203 75% 85 [27] [50] A2674 204 50% 155 [42] 53 [ 447 ] HERODIUM I: HEROD’S TOMB PRECINCT Locus Index Preserved part Weight (gram) Min. thickness (mm) Max. thickness (mm) A2674 205 75% 185 [47] 58 A2674 206 Complete 205 47 61 A2674 207 50% 0.075 [23] 58 A2674 208 50% 125 [41] 62 A2674 209 50% 100 [28] 62 A2674 210 50% 175 [33] 72 A2674 211 Complete 445 64 72 A2674 212 Complete 560 71 79 A2674 213 Complete 200 57 59 A2674 214 Complete 465 61 72 A2674 215 Complete 330 50 67 A2674 216 Complete 325 60 64 A2674 217 Complete 535 66 78 A2674 218 Complete 375 69 72 A2674 273 50% 80 [30] 58 A2677 2 Complete 185 54 63 A2678 9 Complete 375 63 73 A2678 66 33% 130 [28] 68 A2682 240 Complete 240 50 63 A2682 241 Complete 295 50 69 A2682 242 Complete 285 63 66 A2682 243 Complete 240 61 62 A2683 288 Complete 215 [33] 66 A2688 19 Complete 180 53 65 A2688 178 50% 305 [40] 77 A2691 43 33% 60 [29] [55] A2691 177 50% 290 68 72 A2691 179 Complete 335 56 73 A2691 180 Complete 285 60 65 A2691 181 Complete 300 62 70 A2691 182 Complete 295 56 74 A2691 183 Complete 360 65 72 A2691 184 Complete 490 65 72 A2691 185 Complete 150 48 56 A2691 186 Complete 295 62 70 A2691 187 75% 175 [54] 68 A2693 129 Complete 595 71 78 [ 448 ] CHAPTER 12: MILITARY EQUIPMENT Locus Index Preserved part Weight (gram) Min. thickness (mm) Max. thickness (mm) A2693 130 Complete 660 64 81 A2693 131 Complete 330 68 72 A2693 132 Complete 310 61 71 A2693 133 Complete 400 68 75 A2693 134 75% 410 72 75 A2693 135 Complete 250 63 66 A2693 136 Complete 330 70 71 A2693 246 Complete 670 72 77 A2693 247 Complete 375 64 70 A2693 248 Complete 465 55 80 A2693 249 Complete 330 53 73 A2693 250 Complete 380 69 69 A2693 251 Complete 465 65 69 A2693 252 75% 290 [56] 68 A2693 253 Complete 245 52 60 A2693 254 50% 205 [41] 68 A2693 255 75% 200 [42] 64 A2693 256 Complete 365 55 77 A2694 6 Complete 455 66 72 A2694 8 Complete 290 56 61 A2700 261 Complete 460 65 73 A2700 262 Complete 345 58 67 A2700 263 Complete 460 69 75 A2700 264 Complete 540 62 80 A2700 265 50% 130 [32] 66 A2700 266 50% 260 [33] 7 A2700 267 25% 110 [21] 70 A2700 268 Complete 235 53 58 A2709 271 Complete 325 51 67 A2725 257 Complete 255 59 62 A2725 258 Complete 200 57 58 A2725 259 50% 355 [47] 83 A2725 260 Complete 405 62 68 A2727 276 Complete 175 46 63 A2747 274 25% 85 [23] [58] A2756 282 Complete 350 60 72 A2756 283 Complete 635 70 82 [ 449 ] HERODIUM I: HEROD’S TOMB PRECINCT Locus Index Preserved part Weight (gram) Min. thickness (mm) Max. thickness (mm) A2757 29 Complete 320 58 72 A276? 83 50% 205 [48] 75 A2760 64 Complete 235 52 63 A2763 44 Complete 505 70 79 A2769 33 Complete 195 58 61 A2770 60 Complete 500 68 77 A2773 48 Complete 1695 89 107 A2773 56 Complete 275 62 70 A2791 36 Complete 435 62 76 A2798 34 Complete 525 68 78 A2798 45 Complete 395 59 70 A2798 46 50% 315 46 80 A2798 51 Complete 380 66 65 A2801 52 50% 270 45 74 A2802 47 Complete 395 58 69 A2802 61 33% 135 35 71 A2802 62 50% 155 29 73 A2802 63 33% 120 [25] 71 A2804 72 Complete 350 65 70 A2804 73 Complete 250 57 64 A2804 74 75% 215 [52] 70 A2804 75 Complete 235 59 66 A2804 76 Complete 320 66 72 A2804 77 Complete 220 55 65 A2804 78 Complete 210 [50] 67 A2804 79 50% 195 [41] 68 A2804 80 33% 140 [34] [67] A2808 54 Complete 325 55 65 A2808 59 Complete 165 52 61 A2808 85 Complete 265 57 63 A2808 86 Complete 330 66 74 A2808 87 Complete 590 69 88 A2808 88 Complete 390 67 73 A2810 98 Complete 380 61 73 A2810 99 33% 195 [34] 72 A2810 100 Complete 290 [59] 70 A2810 101 Complete 245 57 63 [ 450 ] CHAPTER 12: MILITARY EQUIPMENT Locus Index Preserved part Weight (gram) Min. thickness (mm) Max. thickness (mm) A2810 102 Complete 200 51 68 A2810 103 Complete 75 \ \ A2810 104 Complete 250 [51] 62 A2810 105 Complete 325 59 72 A2810 106 Complete 160 52 60 A2810 107 Complete 265 60 67 A2810 108 Complete 315 57 73 A2810 109 75% 170 54 [47] A2810 110 Complete 150 50 55 A2810 111 50% 145 40 59 A2814 1 Complete 240 53 60 A2814 13 50% 265 [48] 77 A2817 71 20% 960 84 93 A2819 277 Complete 625 72 76 A2819 278 75% 175 [44] 60 A2819 279 33% 200 [45] 69 A2819 280 50% 220 [40] 67 A2819 281 25% 105 [29] [69] A2822 89 Complete 365 62 73 A2822 90 50% 275 [50] 72 A2822 91 Complete 220 [55] 62 A2822 122 Complete 415 [69] 84 A2822 123 75% 220 [52] 65 A2822 124 Complete 315 57 67 A2822 125 Complete 245 54 61 A2822 126 50% 400 [47] 79 A2822 127 25% 180 [40] 70 A2822 128 50% 150 [41] 61 A2822 284 Complete 295 57 67 A2822 285 Complete 460 63 68 A2822 286 Complete 975 73 94 A2828 3 Complete 895 70 88 A2828 5 50% 240 [49] 74 A2830 115 33% 175 61 [58] A2830 118 Complete 175 57 60 A2830 119 50% 185 68 [56] A2830 120 50% 140 66 [34] [ 451 ] HERODIUM I: HEROD’S TOMB PRECINCT Locus Index Preserved part Weight (gram) Min. thickness (mm) Max. thickness (mm) A2830 121 50% 100 [65] [30] A2830 170 33% 95 [44] 61 A2830 171 Complete 215 56 61 A2830 172 50% 145 [40] 63 A2830 173 50% 140 45 59 A2830 174 75% 205 68 69 A2830 175 50% 265 47 72 A2830 176 50% 160 61 65 A2834 4 Complete 405 65 74 A2841 165 50% 220 [39] 76 A2841 166 50% 190 [40] 73 A2842 112 Complete 240 57 63 A2842 113 Complete 265 60 68 A2843 7 50% 210 [38] 73 A2843 188 Complete 315 [66] 77 A2843 189 33% 105 [32] [60] A2843 190 Complete 315 61 67 A2843 191 Complete 240 53 60 A2844 196 Complete 515 62 77 A2844 197 Complete 365 66 73 A2844 198 75% 210 65 67 A2844 199 75% 220 48 69 A2845 192 Complete 355 63 70 A2845 193 Complete 655 75 82 A2845 194 Complete 670 76 79 A2845 195 50% 190 [36] 70 A2848 27 Complete 275 53 65 A2848 114 Complete 455 76 74 A2848 7934 33% 70 [31] 62 A2850 117 Complete 525 72 76 A2882 342 Complete 530 66 74 A2911 270 Complete 150 50 55 A2921 269 Complete 1005 85 90 A2929 272 50% 205 [38] 63 A2938 200 Complete 465 56 75 A2938 201 50% 460 [49] 91 A2938 202 Complete 365 60 79 [ 452 ] CHAPTER 12: MILITARY EQUIPMENT Locus Index Preserved part Weight (gram) Min. thickness (mm) Max. thickness (mm) A-Surface 31 Complete 430 78 [62] A-Surface 35 Complete 345 60 70 A-Surface 41 Complete 380 57 71 A-Surface 57 Complete 330 60 72 A-Surface 58 50% 315 [47] 75 A-Surface 65 33% 120 [34] 67 A-Surface 84 50% 125 [35] [65] A-Surface 92 Complete 580 70 88 A-Surface 93 Complete 425 63 75 A-Surface 94 Complete 305 [64] 75 A-Surface 95 50% 235 [56] 77 A-Surface 96 Complete 230 61 65 A-Surface 97 75% 165 [46] 60 A-Surface 275 25% 80 [43] [70] A-Surface 310 Complete 280 58 72 A-Surface 312 Complete 150 53 55 A-Surface 313 Complete 220 51 62 A-Surface 314 Complete 320 59 67 ? 116 Complete 7155 170 173 [ 453 ] Plate 14 0 1 2 cm 14.2. Carnelian gem (right) and its imprint (left). (Photo: T. Rogovski) 0 1 2 cm 14.1. Carnelian gem inserted into the oval cavity of an iron ring revealed during the excavations of the tomb precinct. (Photo: T. Rogovski) 14.3. Roman wheel brooch revealed in the refuse dump to the west of the mausoleum ruins. (Photo: T. Rogovski) 14.4. Bone ear-lath from a composite bow uncovered west of the theater in a Herodian dump. (Photo: T. Rogovski)